External sources of power:   One example of external power is resources. Resources include money, education, information, land; being articulate, numerate, literate; having access to other individuals with external power. All of us experience having this kind of power over others at some time in our lives: we have more money than some and less than others, we have more educa­tion and information than some and less than others. The more/less measurement means that those with resources have power over those who have fewer or none.

A second example is societal power that is granted in a ranking system, those higher up having power over those below. A parent has power over a child, a teacher over a pupil, a manager over a department, a director over several managers, a mayor over a council, an emperor over an empire, and so on. The nature of power here is one of position, role and status which carries with it legitimate power. Once again, all of us, at different times in the hierarchical world in which we live and work, experience being over some and under others at the same time.

A third example of external power is expertise. This relates to the power that comes from ability, skill, talent, training and education. Expertise in any field means that you have power over others with less or no expertise: you will also experience the reverse in some aspects of your life, where you are vulner­able precisely because you have to depend on someone else for the expertise you don't have.

A final example of external power is referent power. This describes the less concrete but no less powerful commodity of appeal that can come in the form of sex appeal and attractive­ness. It is described as charisma, charm, magnetism and persuasiveness. It is the kind of power that people respond to by imitating, obeying, following, moulding themselves upon, even parting with their money and sanity along the way. It is evident in the imitation and adulation of sports or pop stars and seen in a variety of ways in which we look up to and try to model ourselves on someone else as an ideal.

We are usually only conscious of this perpendicular form of power when interacting with other people. Because we are so preoccupied with this one form, it comes as a surprise to consider the parallel existence of a second kind of power. This is quite different, more nebulous in nature and less easy to describe.- Nevertheless, it is real, tangible and noticeable both in its absence and presence. Here, power is internal, coming from a source within our being. Aspects of it include:

	Freedom to be oneself.
	Self-esteem.
	Spontaneity.
	Integrity.
	Self-trust.
	Emotional attunement.
	Wisdom (as distinct from knowledge).
	Flexibility.
	Awareness of boundaries.
	Self-realization.

The first major difference is that internal power is an abiding power. It can be seen in unsophisticated form in small chil­dren. It develops, if encouraged, into adulthood and can last a lifetime. By contrast, sources of external power are temporary. Resources are limited and finite; expertise only carries power when that particular skill is needed by others: family, profes­sional and social roles and status change along with the power that accompanies them; attractiveness to others, measured by the prevailing cultural norm, is temporary. We find ourselves sometimes with power over others and at other times we find ourselves without it.

The qualities of personal power, on the other hand, are not commodities, which means they cannot be bought, sold or bartered in the same way as aspects of external power. Yet although personal power comes from within and does not depend upon the same sources as external power, it still fluc­tuates. It waxes and wanes according to life experiences, as a child, as an adult, at home, at work, in society at large. The kinds of life experience that account for the lowering of personal power include:

	Constant criticism
	Ignorance of alternative strategies
	Isolation and lack of support
	Over-protection
	Unexpressed feelings
	No access to learning alternatives
	Depression
	Avoidance
	Fatigue/illness
	Fear of reprisals
	Denial

Managing internal and external power is a challenge. Some of us are more comfortable with external power than others. Distinguishing between the two is essential because there are times when we have external power but feel internally powerless, and times when we are defeated by the system but retain our personal power.

There is nothing inherently wrong with power over others. It comes as part and parcel of the structure of the world in which we live. Our difficulties arise in the way that we choose to use or abuse this power over others. If used aggressively, external power becomes oppression.

How do we oppress others? There are obvious examples of institutional and social oppression using gender (sexism), nationality/culture/colour of skin (racism), sexual prefer­ences (heterosexism), age (ageism) as an excuse or rational­ization for all kinds of oppressive behaviour. These range from exclusion and disregard, through victimization and bullying to extreme abuse and extermination. Most of us will have suffered, in some way, as a result of these forms of insti­tutional oppression.

Even in our ordinary lives, we are capable of oppressing others, often unaware that we are doing so. The following examples apply in both personal and professional contexts:

	Keeping someone over-dependent.
	Making choices and decisions for others inappropriately. Obviously some choices have to be made for others without consultation, but it is also used as a strategy to gain or retain external power over other people.
	Exercising legitimate power but not allowing the other person to express their feelings in response to your actions or decisions. This is a common example of oppres­sive behaviour between employer and employee, and between parents and children.
	Maintaining a tight control in personal relationships.
	Failing to confront prejudiced assumptions about oneself and others.
	Excluding others from participation. Again this is some­times necessary but it leaves a wide margin open to abuse because of the need to hold on to external power.

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